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<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=Edge" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <title>18.1.5. email.header: Internationalized headers — Python 2.7.18 documentation</title> <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/classic.css" type="text/css" /> <link rel="stylesheet" href="../_static/pygments.css" type="text/css" /> <script type="text/javascript" id="documentation_options" data-url_root="../" src="../_static/documentation_options.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/jquery.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/underscore.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/doctools.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/language_data.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/sidebar.js"></script> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" title="Search within Python 2.7.18 documentation" href="../_static/opensearch.xml"/> <link rel="author" title="About these documents" href="../about.html" /> <link rel="index" title="Index" href="../genindex.html" /> <link rel="search" title="Search" href="../search.html" /> <link rel="copyright" title="Copyright" href="../copyright.html" /> <link rel="next" title="18.1.6. email.charset: Representing character sets" href="email.charset.html" /> <link rel="prev" title="18.1.4. email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch" href="email.mime.html" /> <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="../_static/py.png" /> <link rel="canonical" href="file:///usr/share/doc/python2.7/html/library/email.header.html" /> <script type="text/javascript" src="../_static/copybutton.js"></script> </head><body> <div id="outdated-warning" style="padding: .5em; text-align: center; background-color: #FFBABA; color: #6A0E0E;"> This document is for an old version of Python that is <a href="https://devguide.python.org/devcycle/#end-of-life-branches">no longer supported</a>. You should install the python3 and python3-doc packages and read the <a href="file:///usr/share/doc/python3-doc/html/library/email.header.html"> Python documentation for the Python3 version packaged in this release</a>. </div> <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation"> <h3>Navigation</h3> <ul> <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px"> <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index" accesskey="I">index</a></li> <li class="right" > <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index" >modules</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="email.charset.html" title="18.1.6. email.charset: Representing character sets" accesskey="N">next</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="email.mime.html" title="18.1.4. email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch" accesskey="P">previous</a> |</li> <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt="" style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li> <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> »</li> <li> <a href="../index.html">Python 2.7.18 documentation</a> » </li> <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> »</li> <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="netdata.html" >18. Internet Data Handling</a> »</li> <li class="nav-item nav-item-3"><a href="email.html" accesskey="U">18.1. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code> — An email and MIME handling package</a> »</li> </ul> </div> <div class="document"> <div class="documentwrapper"> <div class="bodywrapper"> <div class="body" role="main"> <div class="section" id="module-email.header"> <span id="email-header-internationalized-headers"></span><h1>18.1.5. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.header" title="email.header: Representing non-ASCII headers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.header</span></code></a>: Internationalized headers<a class="headerlink" href="#module-email.header" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1> <p><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a> is the base standard that describes the format of email messages. It derives from the older <span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc822.html"><strong>RFC 822</strong></a> standard which came into widespread use at a time when most email was composed of ASCII characters only. <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a> is a specification written assuming email contains only 7-bit ASCII characters.</p> <p>Of course, as email has been deployed worldwide, it has become internationalized, such that language specific character sets can now be used in email messages. The base standard still requires email messages to be transferred using only 7-bit ASCII characters, so a slew of RFCs have been written describing how to encode email containing non-ASCII characters into <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a>-compliant format. These RFCs include <span class="target" id="index-4"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2045.html"><strong>RFC 2045</strong></a>, <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2046.html"><strong>RFC 2046</strong></a>, <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a>, and <span class="target" id="index-7"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2231.html"><strong>RFC 2231</strong></a>. The <a class="reference internal" href="email.html#module-email" title="email: Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages, including MIME documents."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email</span></code></a> package supports these standards in its <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.header" title="email.header: Representing non-ASCII headers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.header</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html#module-email.charset" title="email.charset: Character Sets"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.charset</span></code></a> modules.</p> <p>If you want to include non-ASCII characters in your email headers, say in the <em class="mailheader">Subject</em> or <em class="mailheader">To</em> fields, you should use the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> class and assign the field in the <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> object to an instance of <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> instead of using a string for the header value. Import the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> class from the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.header" title="email.header: Representing non-ASCII headers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.header</span></code></a> module. For example:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.message</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Message</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.header</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">Header</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">msg</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Message</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">h</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'p</span><span class="se">\xf6</span><span class="s1">stal'</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s1">'iso-8859-1'</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="s1">'Subject'</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">h</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">print</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">as_string</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="go">Subject: =?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?=</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Notice here how we wanted the <em class="mailheader">Subject</em> field to contain a non-ASCII character? We did this by creating a <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> instance and passing in the character set that the byte string was encoded in. When the subsequent <a class="reference internal" href="email.message.html#email.message.Message" title="email.message.Message"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Message</span></code></a> instance was flattened, the <em class="mailheader">Subject</em> field was properly <span class="target" id="index-8"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a> encoded. MIME-aware mail readers would show this header using the embedded ISO-8859-1 character.</p> <div class="versionadded"> <p><span class="versionmodified">New in version 2.2.2.</span></p> </div> <p>Here is the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> class description:</p> <dl class="class"> <dt id="email.header.Header"> <em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">email.header.</code><code class="descname">Header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>s</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>charset</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>maxlinelen</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>header_name</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>continuation_ws</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>errors</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.header.Header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Create a MIME-compliant header that can contain strings in different character sets.</p> <p>Optional <em>s</em> is the initial header value. If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default), the initial header value is not set. You can later append to the header with <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header.append" title="email.header.Header.append"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code></a> method calls. <em>s</em> may be a byte string or a Unicode string, but see the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header.append" title="email.header.Header.append"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code></a> documentation for semantics.</p> <p>Optional <em>charset</em> serves two purposes: it has the same meaning as the <em>charset</em> argument to the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header.append" title="email.header.Header.append"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code></a> method. It also sets the default character set for all subsequent <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header.append" title="email.header.Header.append"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code></a> calls that omit the <em>charset</em> argument. If <em>charset</em> is not provided in the constructor (the default), the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">us-ascii</span></code> character set is used both as <em>s</em>’s initial charset and as the default for subsequent <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header.append" title="email.header.Header.append"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code></a> calls.</p> <p>The maximum line length can be specified explicitly via <em>maxlinelen</em>. For splitting the first line to a shorter value (to account for the field header which isn’t included in <em>s</em>, e.g. <em class="mailheader">Subject</em>) pass in the name of the field in <em>header_name</em>. The default <em>maxlinelen</em> is 76, and the default value for <em>header_name</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, meaning it is not taken into account for the first line of a long, split header.</p> <p>Optional <em>continuation_ws</em> must be <span class="target" id="index-9"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a>-compliant folding whitespace, and is usually either a space or a hard tab character. This character will be prepended to continuation lines. <em>continuation_ws</em> defaults to a single space character (” “).</p> <p>Optional <em>errors</em> is passed straight through to the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header.append" title="email.header.Header.append"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">append()</span></code></a> method.</p> <dl class="method"> <dt id="email.header.Header.append"> <code class="descname">append</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>s</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>charset</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>errors</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.header.Header.append" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Append the string <em>s</em> to the MIME header.</p> <p>Optional <em>charset</em>, if given, should be a <a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a> instance (see <a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html#module-email.charset" title="email.charset: Character Sets"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.charset</span></code></a>) or the name of a character set, which will be converted to a <a class="reference internal" href="email.charset.html#email.charset.Charset" title="email.charset.Charset"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Charset</span></code></a> instance. A value of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> (the default) means that the <em>charset</em> given in the constructor is used.</p> <p><em>s</em> may be a byte string or a Unicode string. If it is a byte string (i.e. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">isinstance(s,</span> <span class="pre">str)</span></code> is true), then <em>charset</em> is the encoding of that byte string, and a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#exceptions.UnicodeError" title="exceptions.UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeError</span></code></a> will be raised if the string cannot be decoded with that character set.</p> <p>If <em>s</em> is a Unicode string, then <em>charset</em> is a hint specifying the character set of the characters in the string. In this case, when producing an <span class="target" id="index-10"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a>-compliant header using <span class="target" id="index-11"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a> rules, the Unicode string will be encoded using the following charsets in order: <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">us-ascii</span></code>, the <em>charset</em> hint, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">utf-8</span></code>. The first character set to not provoke a <a class="reference internal" href="exceptions.html#exceptions.UnicodeError" title="exceptions.UnicodeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">UnicodeError</span></code></a> is used.</p> <p>Optional <em>errors</em> is passed through to any <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#unicode" title="unicode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode()</span></code></a> or <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode.encode()</span></code> call, and defaults to “strict”.</p> </dd></dl> <dl class="method"> <dt id="email.header.Header.encode"> <code class="descname">encode</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>splitchars</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.header.Header.encode" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Encode a message header into an RFC-compliant format, possibly wrapping long lines and encapsulating non-ASCII parts in base64 or quoted-printable encodings. Optional <em>splitchars</em> is a string containing characters to split long ASCII lines on, in rough support of <span class="target" id="index-12"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2822.html"><strong>RFC 2822</strong></a>’s <em>highest level syntactic breaks</em>. This doesn’t affect <span class="target" id="index-13"></span><a class="rfc reference external" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2047.html"><strong>RFC 2047</strong></a> encoded lines.</p> </dd></dl> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> class also provides a number of methods to support standard operators and built-in functions.</p> <dl class="method"> <dt id="email.header.Header.__str__"> <code class="descname">__str__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.header.Header.__str__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>A synonym for <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header.encode" title="email.header.Header.encode"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header.encode()</span></code></a>. Useful for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str(aHeader)</span></code>.</p> </dd></dl> <dl class="method"> <dt id="email.header.Header.__unicode__"> <code class="descname">__unicode__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.header.Header.__unicode__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>A helper for the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#unicode" title="unicode"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">unicode()</span></code></a> function. Returns the header as a Unicode string.</p> </dd></dl> <dl class="method"> <dt id="email.header.Header.__eq__"> <code class="descname">__eq__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.header.Header.__eq__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>This method allows you to compare two <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> instances for equality.</p> </dd></dl> <dl class="method"> <dt id="email.header.Header.__ne__"> <code class="descname">__ne__</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>other</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.header.Header.__ne__" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>This method allows you to compare two <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> instances for inequality.</p> </dd></dl> </dd></dl> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-email.header" title="email.header: Representing non-ASCII headers"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.header</span></code></a> module also provides the following convenient functions.</p> <dl class="function"> <dt id="email.header.decode_header"> <code class="descclassname">email.header.</code><code class="descname">decode_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>header</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.header.decode_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Decode a message header value without converting the character set. The header value is in <em>header</em>.</p> <p>This function returns a list of <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(decoded_string,</span> <span class="pre">charset)</span></code> pairs containing each of the decoded parts of the header. <em>charset</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> for non-encoded parts of the header, otherwise a lower case string containing the name of the character set specified in the encoded string.</p> <p>Here’s an example:</p> <div class="highlight-default notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">email.header</span> <span class="k">import</span> <span class="n">decode_header</span> <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">decode_header</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'=?iso-8859-1?q?p=F6stal?='</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">[('p\xf6stal', 'iso-8859-1')]</span> </pre></div> </div> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="email.header.make_header"> <code class="descclassname">email.header.</code><code class="descname">make_header</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>decoded_seq</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>maxlinelen</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>header_name</em><span class="optional">[</span>, <em>continuation_ws</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#email.header.make_header" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Create a <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> instance from a sequence of pairs as returned by <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.decode_header" title="email.header.decode_header"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode_header()</span></code></a>.</p> <p><a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.decode_header" title="email.header.decode_header"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">decode_header()</span></code></a> takes a header value string and returns a sequence of pairs of the format <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">(decoded_string,</span> <span class="pre">charset)</span></code> where <em>charset</em> is the name of the character set.</p> <p>This function takes one of those sequence of pairs and returns a <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> instance. Optional <em>maxlinelen</em>, <em>header_name</em>, and <em>continuation_ws</em> are as in the <a class="reference internal" href="#email.header.Header" title="email.header.Header"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Header</span></code></a> constructor.</p> </dd></dl> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation"> <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper"> <h4>Previous topic</h4> <p class="topless"><a href="email.mime.html" title="previous chapter">18.1.4. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.mime</span></code>: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch</a></p> <h4>Next topic</h4> <p class="topless"><a href="email.charset.html" title="next chapter">18.1.6. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">email.charset</span></code>: Representing character sets</a></p> <div role="note" aria-label="source link"> <h3>This Page</h3> <ul class="this-page-menu"> <li><a href="../_sources/library/email.header.rst.txt" rel="nofollow">Show Source</a></li> </ul> </div> <div id="searchbox" style="display: none" role="search"> <h3>Quick search</h3> <div class="searchformwrapper"> <form class="search" action="../search.html" method="get"> <input type="text" name="q" /> <input type="submit" value="Go" /> <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" /> <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" /> </form> </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript">$('#searchbox').show(0);</script> </div> </div> <div class="clearer"></div> </div> <div class="related" role="navigation" aria-label="related navigation"> <h3>Navigation</h3> <ul> <li class="right" style="margin-right: 10px"> <a href="../genindex.html" title="General Index" >index</a></li> <li class="right" > <a href="../py-modindex.html" title="Python Module Index" >modules</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="email.charset.html" title="18.1.6. email.charset: Representing character sets" >next</a> |</li> <li class="right" > <a href="email.mime.html" title="18.1.4. email.mime: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch" >previous</a> |</li> <li><img src="../_static/py.png" alt="" style="vertical-align: middle; margin-top: -1px"/></li> <li><a href="https://www.python.org/">Python</a> »</li> <li> <a href="../index.html">Python 2.7.18 documentation</a> » </li> <li class="nav-item nav-item-1"><a href="index.html" >The Python Standard Library</a> »</li> <li class="nav-item nav-item-2"><a href="netdata.html" >18. 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